grok-4.3 · popcorn · pop_l123_all_gpt
correct 7_GaussianProcessRegression.py
model
grok-4.3
turns / max
5 / 15
tool calls
5
tokens (total)
25643
wall clock
1585.6s
truncated
no
backend
cuda fp32
variant
popcorn
runtime
0.82 μs
ref runtime
0.87 μs
speedup
1.07x
started
2026-05-11T19:56:59Z
timingkernelbench.timing
kernel runtime
0.82 μs
ref runtime
0.87 μs
speedup
1.07x
kernel mean / median / std
0.82 / — / 0.05 μs
ref mean / median / std
0.87 / — / 0.07 μs
numerical precisioneval_kernel_against_ref
max abs error
6.48e-05
mean abs error
5.72e-06
max rel error
0.02
mean rel error
3.34e-05
gpu memoryextended_metrics.measure_memory
kernel peak
34.75 MB
ref peak
37.03 MB
kernel / ref
0.94x
kernel launches / fusiontorch.profiler
kernel launches
109
ref launches
140
fusion ratio (ref / kernel)
1.28x
total cuda time
2968 μs
energyNVML (pynvml)
kernel mJ / run
241.58
ref mJ / run
0.00
ratio (ref / kernel)
—
avg power
330.80 W
ref avg power
0.00 W
SOL (speed-of-light)nsight_hardware_counters
SOL score (0–1)
1.000
dram util %
22.6%
compute util %
100.0%
bottleneck
compute-bound
dominant pipe
FP32
arithmetic intensity
—
ridge point
20.00
roofline / occupancynsight_hardware_counters
dram bandwidth
757.01 GB/s
dram util %
22.6%
fp32 tflops
—
fp32 util %
—
fp16 tflops
—
occupancy %
694.5%
bottleneck
compute-bound
dominant pipe %
142.7%
arithmetic intensity
—
ridge point
20.00
L1 hit %
—
L2 hit %
5318.2%
ld sectors / req
274.88
st sectors / req
—
regs / thread
1821
smem / block
124672 B
block size
13385
peak bw
3350.00 GB/s
peak fp32 tflops
67.00
peak fp16 tflops
1979.00
warp stalls (top 5)nsight
long_scoreboard
36721.5%
short_scoreboard
15260.0%
mio_throttle
465.7%
reference PyTorch source (the prompt the agent sees)
import torch
import torch.nn as nn


class Model(nn.Module):
    """
    Gaussian Process posterior predictive distribution via Cholesky
    decomposition.  Computes the predictive mean and variance at test
    points given training data and an RBF kernel.  The Cholesky solve
    is the computational bottleneck in exact GP inference.
    """

    def __init__(self, input_dim, noise=0.01, lengthscale=1.0, variance=1.0):
        super().__init__()
        self.noise = noise
        self.log_lengthscale = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(lengthscale).log())
        self.log_variance = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(variance).log())

    def _rbf_kernel(self, X1, X2):
        l2 = self.log_lengthscale.exp() ** 2
        var = self.log_variance.exp()
        dist_sq = ((X1.unsqueeze(2) - X2.unsqueeze(1)) ** 2).sum(-1)
        return var * torch.exp(-0.5 * dist_sq / l2)

    def forward(
        self, X_train: torch.Tensor, Y_train: torch.Tensor, X_test: torch.Tensor
    ) -> tuple:
        """
        Args:
            X_train: (B, N, D)
            Y_train: (B, N, 1)
            X_test:  (B, M, D)
        Returns:
            (mean, var):
                mean: (B, M, 1) – predictive mean
                var:  (B, M)    – predictive variance
        """
        K_nn = self._rbf_kernel(X_train, X_train)
        K_nn = K_nn + self.noise * torch.eye(K_nn.shape[-1], device=K_nn.device).unsqueeze(0)
        K_nm = self._rbf_kernel(X_train, X_test)
        K_mm = self._rbf_kernel(X_test, X_test)

        L = torch.linalg.cholesky(K_nn)
        alpha = torch.cholesky_solve(Y_train, L)

        mean = K_nm.transpose(-1, -2) @ alpha

        v = torch.linalg.solve_triangular(L, K_nm, upper=False)
        var = K_mm.diagonal(dim1=-2, dim2=-1) - (v ** 2).sum(dim=-2)
        var = var.clamp(min=1e-6)

        return mean, var


input_dim = 4
num_train = 128
num_test = 32
batch_size = 8


def get_inputs():
    p = popcorn_pri
    X_train = torch.randn(p.jitter_int(batch_size), p.jitter_int(num_train), input_dim)
    Y_train = torch.randn(p.jitter_int(batch_size), p.jitter_int(num_train), 1)
    X_test = torch.randn(p.jitter_int(batch_size), p.jitter_int(num_test), input_dim)
    return [X_train, Y_train, X_test]


def get_init_inputs():
    return [input_dim]
turn 0292.4s turn · 9.4s LLM · 283.0s tools · tokens in=2,363 · out=6 · total=2,971
reasoning
The task is to replace the forward computation of this Gaussian Process model with a custom CUDA kernel that's faster than the PyTorch reference. The task requires replacing the forward computation of a Gaussian Process model in PyTorch with a custom CUDA kernel. The new ModelNew class must take the train_inputs, train_targets, test_inputs, and possibly other arguments like lengthscale and outputscale, though they're hardcoded or passed through __init__. The forward method signature remains the same: def forward(self, x_new): return mean, var No, let's correct that.
call → get_gpu_specs
callget_gpu_specs {}
result ← get_gpu_specs (ok)
okget_gpu_specs GPU specs for NVIDIA H100 80GB HBM3: total memory (runtime): 79.1 GB spec entry: H100 GPU Architecture: Hopper GPU Memory: 80GB Memory Bandwidth: 3.35 TB/s FP64 TFLOPS: 34 FP64 Tensor Core TFLOPS: 67 FP32 TFLOPS: 67 TF32 Tensor Core TFLOPS: 989 with sparsity BFLOAT16 Tensore Core TFLOPS: 1979 with sparsity FP16 Tensor Core TFLOPS: 1979 with sparsity FP8 Tensor Core TFLOPS: 3958 with sparsity INT8 Tensor Core TOPS: 3958 with sparsity Register File Size: 64K 32-bit registers per SM Maximum number of registers per thread: 255 Maximum number of thread blocks per SM: 32 Shared memory capacity per SM: 228 KB Maximum shared memory per thread block: 227 KB
turn 1454.2s turn · 14.8s LLM · 439.3s tools · tokens in=3,204 · out=869 · total=4,285
reasoning
It's an H100, very fast GPU. The operations are tiny, so reference time is probably microseconds.
call → compile_kernel
callcompile_kernel { "kernel_code": "import torch\nimport torch.nn as nn\nfrom torch.utils.cpp_extension import load_inline\n\ncuda_source = '''\n#include <torch/extension.h>\n#include <cuda.h>\n#include <cuda_runtime.h>\n\n__global__ void rbf_kernel_kernel(\n const float* __restrict__ X1,\n const float* __restrict__ X2,\n float* __restrict__ K,\n int B, int N1, int N2, int D,\n float l2, float var) {\n\n int idx = blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x;\n int total = B * N1 * N2;\n if (idx >= total) return;\n\n int b = idx / (N1 * N2);\n int rem = idx % (N1 * N2);\n int i = rem / N2;\n int j = rem % N2;\n\n float dist_sq = 0.0f;\n for (int d = 0; d < D; d++) {\n float diff = X1[b * N1 * D + i * D + d] - X2[b * N2 * D + j * D + d];\n dist_sq += diff * diff;\n }\n K[idx] = var * expf(-0.5f * dist_sq / l2);\n}\n\ntorch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance) {\n auto B = X1.size(0);\n auto N1 = X1.size(1);\n auto N2 = X2.size(1);\n auto D = X1.size(2);\n\n auto K = torch::zeros({B, N1, N2}, X1.options());\n\n float l2 = lengthscale * lengthscale;\n float var = variance;\n\n int total = B * N1 * N2;\n int threads = 256;\n int blocks = (total + threads - 1) / threads;\n\n rbf_kernel_kernel<<<blocks, threads>>>(\n X1.data_ptr<float>(), X2.data_ptr<float>(),\n K.data_ptr<float>(),\n B, N1, N2, D, l2, var);\n\n return K;\n}\n'''\n\ncpp_source = '''\ntorch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance);\n'''\n\n# Load the extension\next = load_inline(\n name='rbf_ext',\n cpp_sources=[cpp_source],\n cuda_sources=[cuda_source],\n functions=['rbf_kernel_cuda'],\n verbose=False\n)\n\nclass ModelNew(nn.Module):\n def __init__(self, input_dim, noise=0.01, lengthscale=1.0, variance=1.0):\n super().__init__()\n self.noise = noise\n self.log_lengthscale = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(lengthscale).log())\n self.log_variance = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(variance).log())\n self.ext = ext\n\n def forward(self, X_train, Y_train, X_test):\n l = self.log_lengthscale.exp()\n v = self.log_variance.exp()\n\n K_nn = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_train, l.item(), v.item())\n eye = torch.eye(K_nn.shape[-1], device=K_nn.device).unsqueeze(0)\n K_nn = K_nn + self.noise * eye\n K_nm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_test, l.item(), v.item())\n K_mm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_test, X_test, l.item(), v.item())\n\n L = torch.linalg.cholesky(K_nn)\n alpha = torch.cholesky_solve(Y_train, L)\n\n mean = K_nm.transpose(-1, -2) @ alpha\n\n v_tri = torch.linalg.solve_triangular(L, K_nm, upper=False)\n var = K_mm.diagonal(dim1=-2, dim2=-1) - (v_tri ** 2).sum(dim=-2)\n var = var.clamp(min=1e-6)\n\n return mean, var\n" }
result ← compile_kernel (ok)
okcompile_kernel compile_kernel PASSED: kernel compiled without errors.
turn 2366.2s turn · 8.9s LLM · 357.4s tools · tokens in=4,302 · out=865 · total=5,174
reasoning
It compiled. Now check correctness.
call → run_correctness
callrun_correctness { "kernel_code": "import torch\nimport torch.nn as nn\nfrom torch.utils.cpp_extension import load_inline\n\ncuda_source = '''\n#include <torch/extension.h>\n#include <cuda.h>\n#include <cuda_runtime.h>\n\n__global__ void rbf_kernel_kernel(\n const float* __restrict__ X1,\n const float* __restrict__ X2,\n float* __restrict__ K,\n int B, int N1, int N2, int D,\n float l2, float var) {\n\n int idx = blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x;\n int total = B * N1 * N2;\n if (idx >= total) return;\n\n int b = idx / (N1 * N2);\n int rem = idx % (N1 * N2);\n int i = rem / N2;\n int j = rem % N2;\n\n float dist_sq = 0.0f;\n for (int d = 0; d < D; d++) {\n float diff = X1[b * N1 * D + i * D + d] - X2[b * N2 * D + j * D + d];\n dist_sq += diff * diff;\n }\n K[idx] = var * expf(-0.5f * dist_sq / l2);\n}\n\ntorch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance) {\n auto B = X1.size(0);\n auto N1 = X1.size(1);\n auto N2 = X2.size(1);\n auto D = X1.size(2);\n\n auto K = torch::zeros({B, N1, N2}, X1.options());\n\n float l2 = lengthscale * lengthscale;\n float var = variance;\n\n int total = B * N1 * N2;\n int threads = 256;\n int blocks = (total + threads - 1) / threads;\n\n rbf_kernel_kernel<<<blocks, threads>>>(\n X1.data_ptr<float>(), X2.data_ptr<float>(),\n K.data_ptr<float>(),\n B, N1, N2, D, l2, var);\n\n return K;\n}\n'''\n\ncpp_source = '''\ntorch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance);\n'''\n\next = load_inline(\n name='rbf_ext',\n cpp_sources=[cpp_source],\n cuda_sources=[cuda_source],\n functions=['rbf_kernel_cuda'],\n verbose=False\n)\n\nclass ModelNew(nn.Module):\n def __init__(self, input_dim, noise=0.01, lengthscale=1.0, variance=1.0):\n super().__init__()\n self.noise = noise\n self.log_lengthscale = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(lengthscale).log())\n self.log_variance = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(variance).log())\n self.ext = ext\n\n def forward(self, X_train, Y_train, X_test):\n l = self.log_lengthscale.exp()\n v = self.log_variance.exp()\n\n K_nn = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_train, l.item(), v.item())\n eye = torch.eye(K_nn.shape[-1], device=K_nn.device).unsqueeze(0)\n K_nn = K_nn + self.noise * eye\n K_nm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_test, l.item(), v.item())\n K_mm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_test, X_test, l.item(), v.item())\n\n L = torch.linalg.cholesky(K_nn)\n alpha = torch.cholesky_solve(Y_train, L)\n\n mean = K_nm.transpose(-1, -2) @ alpha\n\n v_tri = torch.linalg.solve_triangular(L, K_nm, upper=False)\n var = K_mm.diagonal(dim1=-2, dim2=-1) - (v_tri ** 2).sum(dim=-2)\n var = var.clamp(min=1e-6)\n\n return mean, var\n" }
result ← run_correctness (ok)
okrun_correctness run_correctness PASSED: (3 / 3) trials all matched the reference. Numerical precision: max_abs_err=6.48e-05 mean_abs_err=5.72e-06 max_rel_err=1.51e-02
turn 37.3s turn · 7.3s LLM · 0.0s tools · tokens in=5,234 · out=864 · total=6,163
reasoning
Correct. Now, to submit, I need to check if it's faster, but since submit will do that, and static check.
call → static_check
callstatic_check { "kernel_code": "import torch\nimport torch.nn as nn\nfrom torch.utils.cpp_extension import load_inline\n\ncuda_source = '''\n#include <torch/extension.h>\n#include <cuda.h>\n#include <cuda_runtime.h>\n\n__global__ void rbf_kernel_kernel(\n const float* __restrict__ X1,\n const float* __restrict__ X2,\n float* __restrict__ K,\n int B, int N1, int N2, int D,\n float l2, float var) {\n\n int idx = blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x;\n int total = B * N1 * N2;\n if (idx >= total) return;\n\n int b = idx / (N1 * N2);\n int rem = idx % (N1 * N2);\n int i = rem / N2;\n int j = rem % N2;\n\n float dist_sq = 0.0f;\n for (int d = 0; d < D; d++) {\n float diff = X1[b * N1 * D + i * D + d] - X2[b * N2 * D + j * D + d];\n dist_sq += diff * diff;\n }\n K[idx] = var * expf(-0.5f * dist_sq / l2);\n}\n\ntorch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance) {\n auto B = X1.size(0);\n auto N1 = X1.size(1);\n auto N2 = X2.size(1);\n auto D = X1.size(2);\n\n auto K = torch::zeros({B, N1, N2}, X1.options());\n\n float l2 = lengthscale * lengthscale;\n float var = variance;\n\n int total = B * N1 * N2;\n int threads = 256;\n int blocks = (total + threads - 1) / threads;\n\n rbf_kernel_kernel<<<blocks, threads>>>(\n X1.data_ptr<float>(), X2.data_ptr<float>(),\n K.data_ptr<float>(),\n B, N1, N2, D, l2, var);\n\n return K;\n}\n'''\n\ncpp_source = '''\ntorch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance);\n'''\n\next = load_inline(\n name='rbf_ext',\n cpp_sources=[cpp_source],\n cuda_sources=[cuda_source],\n functions=['rbf_kernel_cuda'],\n verbose=False\n)\n\nclass ModelNew(nn.Module):\n def __init__(self, input_dim, noise=0.01, lengthscale=1.0, variance=1.0):\n super().__init__()\n self.noise = noise\n self.log_lengthscale = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(lengthscale).log())\n self.log_variance = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(variance).log())\n self.ext = ext\n\n def forward(self, X_train, Y_train, X_test):\n l = self.log_lengthscale.exp()\n v = self.log_variance.exp()\n\n K_nn = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_train, l.item(), v.item())\n eye = torch.eye(K_nn.shape[-1], device=K_nn.device).unsqueeze(0)\n K_nn = K_nn + self.noise * eye\n K_nm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_test, l.item(), v.item())\n K_mm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_test, X_test, l.item(), v.item())\n\n L = torch.linalg.cholesky(K_nn)\n alpha = torch.cholesky_solve(Y_train, L)\n\n mean = K_nm.transpose(-1, -2) @ alpha\n\n v_tri = torch.linalg.solve_triangular(L, K_nm, upper=False)\n var = K_mm.diagonal(dim1=-2, dim2=-1) - (v_tri ** 2).sum(dim=-2)\n var = var.clamp(min=1e-6)\n\n return mean, var\n" }
result ← static_check (ok)
okstatic_check static_check PASSED: no violations or warnings detected.
turn 4465.5s turn · 8.6s LLM · 456.9s tools · tokens in=6,181 · out=864 · total=7,050 · FINAL
reasoning
Good, now submit.
call → submit_kernel
callsubmit_kernel { "kernel_code": "import torch\nimport torch.nn as nn\nfrom torch.utils.cpp_extension import load_inline\n\ncuda_source = '''\n#include <torch/extension.h>\n#include <cuda.h>\n#include <cuda_runtime.h>\n\n__global__ void rbf_kernel_kernel(\n const float* __restrict__ X1,\n const float* __restrict__ X2,\n float* __restrict__ K,\n int B, int N1, int N2, int D,\n float l2, float var) {\n\n int idx = blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x;\n int total = B * N1 * N2;\n if (idx >= total) return;\n\n int b = idx / (N1 * N2);\n int rem = idx % (N1 * N2);\n int i = rem / N2;\n int j = rem % N2;\n\n float dist_sq = 0.0f;\n for (int d = 0; d < D; d++) {\n float diff = X1[b * N1 * D + i * D + d] - X2[b * N2 * D + j * D + d];\n dist_sq += diff * diff;\n }\n K[idx] = var * expf(-0.5f * dist_sq / l2);\n}\n\ntorch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance) {\n auto B = X1.size(0);\n auto N1 = X1.size(1);\n auto N2 = X2.size(1);\n auto D = X1.size(2);\n\n auto K = torch::zeros({B, N1, N2}, X1.options());\n\n float l2 = lengthscale * lengthscale;\n float var = variance;\n\n int total = B * N1 * N2;\n int threads = 256;\n int blocks = (total + threads - 1) / threads;\n\n rbf_kernel_kernel<<<blocks, threads>>>(\n X1.data_ptr<float>(), X2.data_ptr<float>(),\n K.data_ptr<float>(),\n B, N1, N2, D, l2, var);\n\n return K;\n}\n'''\n\ncpp_source = '''\ntorch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance);\n'''\n\next = load_inline(\n name='rbf_ext',\n cpp_sources=[cpp_source],\n cuda_sources=[cuda_source],\n functions=['rbf_kernel_cuda'],\n verbose=False\n)\n\nclass ModelNew(nn.Module):\n def __init__(self, input_dim, noise=0.01, lengthscale=1.0, variance=1.0):\n super().__init__()\n self.noise = noise\n self.log_lengthscale = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(lengthscale).log())\n self.log_variance = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(variance).log())\n self.ext = ext\n\n def forward(self, X_train, Y_train, X_test):\n l = self.log_lengthscale.exp()\n v = self.log_variance.exp()\n\n K_nn = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_train, l.item(), v.item())\n eye = torch.eye(K_nn.shape[-1], device=K_nn.device).unsqueeze(0)\n K_nn = K_nn + self.noise * eye\n K_nm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_test, l.item(), v.item())\n K_mm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_test, X_test, l.item(), v.item())\n\n L = torch.linalg.cholesky(K_nn)\n alpha = torch.cholesky_solve(Y_train, L)\n\n mean = K_nm.transpose(-1, -2) @ alpha\n\n v_tri = torch.linalg.solve_triangular(L, K_nm, upper=False)\n var = K_mm.diagonal(dim1=-2, dim2=-1) - (v_tri ** 2).sum(dim=-2)\n var = var.clamp(min=1e-6)\n\n return mean, var\n" }
result ← submit_kernel (ok)
oksubmit_kernel submit_kernel PASSED: (3 / 3) correctness trials all passed. Kernel runtime: 0.82 μs Runtime stats: mean=0.82μs median=?μs std=0.05μs Numerical precision: max_abs_err=6.48e-05 mean_abs_err=5.72e-06 max_rel_err=1.51e-02 Memory: 34.75 MB peak (ref: 37.03 MB, ratio: 0.9385x) Kernel launches: 109 (ref: 140, fusion ratio: 1.2844) Energy: 241.58 mJ/run (ref: 0.0 mJ, ratio: -1x) SOL score: 1.0
final submitted kernel (98 lines, 2,845 chars) — full source, untruncated
import torch
import torch.nn as nn
from torch.utils.cpp_extension import load_inline

cuda_source = '''
#include <torch/extension.h>
#include <cuda.h>
#include <cuda_runtime.h>

__global__ void rbf_kernel_kernel(
    const float* __restrict__ X1,
    const float* __restrict__ X2,
    float* __restrict__ K,
    int B, int N1, int N2, int D,
    float l2, float var) {

    int idx = blockIdx.x * blockDim.x + threadIdx.x;
    int total = B * N1 * N2;
    if (idx >= total) return;

    int b = idx / (N1 * N2);
    int rem = idx % (N1 * N2);
    int i = rem / N2;
    int j = rem % N2;

    float dist_sq = 0.0f;
    for (int d = 0; d < D; d++) {
        float diff = X1[b * N1 * D + i * D + d] - X2[b * N2 * D + j * D + d];
        dist_sq += diff * diff;
    }
    K[idx] = var * expf(-0.5f * dist_sq / l2);
}

torch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance) {
    auto B = X1.size(0);
    auto N1 = X1.size(1);
    auto N2 = X2.size(1);
    auto D = X1.size(2);

    auto K = torch::zeros({B, N1, N2}, X1.options());

    float l2 = lengthscale * lengthscale;
    float var = variance;

    int total = B * N1 * N2;
    int threads = 256;
    int blocks = (total + threads - 1) / threads;

    rbf_kernel_kernel<<<blocks, threads>>>(
        X1.data_ptr<float>(), X2.data_ptr<float>(),
        K.data_ptr<float>(),
        B, N1, N2, D, l2, var);

    return K;
}
'''

cpp_source = '''
torch::Tensor rbf_kernel_cuda(torch::Tensor X1, torch::Tensor X2, float lengthscale, float variance);
'''

ext = load_inline(
    name='rbf_ext',
    cpp_sources=[cpp_source],
    cuda_sources=[cuda_source],
    functions=['rbf_kernel_cuda'],
    verbose=False
)

class ModelNew(nn.Module):
    def __init__(self, input_dim, noise=0.01, lengthscale=1.0, variance=1.0):
        super().__init__()
        self.noise = noise
        self.log_lengthscale = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(lengthscale).log())
        self.log_variance = nn.Parameter(torch.tensor(variance).log())
        self.ext = ext

    def forward(self, X_train, Y_train, X_test):
        l = self.log_lengthscale.exp()
        v = self.log_variance.exp()

        K_nn = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_train, l.item(), v.item())
        eye = torch.eye(K_nn.shape[-1], device=K_nn.device).unsqueeze(0)
        K_nn = K_nn + self.noise * eye
        K_nm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_train, X_test, l.item(), v.item())
        K_mm = self.ext.rbf_kernel_cuda(X_test, X_test, l.item(), v.item())

        L = torch.linalg.cholesky(K_nn)
        alpha = torch.cholesky_solve(Y_train, L)

        mean = K_nm.transpose(-1, -2) @ alpha

        v_tri = torch.linalg.solve_triangular(L, K_nm, upper=False)
        var = K_mm.diagonal(dim1=-2, dim2=-1) - (v_tri ** 2).sum(dim=-2)
        var = var.clamp(min=1e-6)

        return mean, var